Negotiating Human and Animal Bond: A Critical Study through the Selected Reading of Linda Hogan

Abstract:

Animals have been an integral part in literature throughout history in various ways. Their representation in literary imagination is also varied across globe. This paper mainly offers a diverse perspective of how animals/concept of animality have been treated by both European culture and Native American culture. While anthropocentric attitude of European settlers believes in the materialistic gain from the non-human surroundings and holds human beings at the center of Universe, Native Americans, on the other hand, asserts their mutual relationship with non-human environment. Linda Hogan in her novel Power not only offers a critique of anthropocentric attitude of European settlers towards animals, but also portrayed how the human-animal relationship shapes Native American’s biocentric identity. The methodology employed in this paper involves a close reading of the primary text and exploration of anthropocentric and biocentric perspectives to understand the human-animal relationship.

Keywords- animal, anthropocentrism, biocentrism, Native Americans, identity.

This paper is an attempt to critically analyze the human-animal relationship to understand how far the dominant discourse of anthropocentrism is challenged by bicentric attitudes of Native American society with special reference to Linda Hogan’s influential novel Power published in the year 1998. Native American literature offers a unique lens through which to explore animality theory, emphasizing interconnectedness, spirituality and ecological stewardship. Unlike Western philosophical traditions that often position humans as separate from and superior to animals, Native American writings challenge these anthropocentric perspectives by centering on non-human perspectives and acknowledging the agency and personhood of animals. They advocate for more holistic and inclusive understandings of human-animal relationships, resisting hierarchical distinction between the two. Linda Hogan’s Power intricately weaves together the human-animal relationship which shows animality as a metaphorical and spiritual force. Her portrayal of animality challenges the anthropocentric views by emphasizing the interconnectedness and interdependence of all beings. Central to Hogan’s exploration is the idea that animality offers a pathway to understanding and respecting the natural world. Unlike anthropocentric view that relegates animals to mere objects or resources, Hogan portrays them as sentient beings with agency and wisdom. This perspective also challenges the readers to reconsider their relationship with animals and the environment, urging them to recognize the inherent value of all living beings.

Anthropocentrism regards people as the primary or most significant beings in the universe and maintains that human wants, values, and beliefs should supersede those of other species and the natural world. In contrast, biocentrism advocates for mutual respect and consideration of non-human entities. The attention on nonhuman entities has been heightened by the late awakening of literary critics and theorists. However, very few societies and tribes worship animal life, consider it to be intrinsic, and believe that nonhuman life and theirs are equivalent before the idea of human supremacy even existed. A political, ecological, and literal ethical perspective known as biocentrism accords intrinsic value to all living things. It opposes anthropocentrism, which places a premium on human worth. Biocentric ethics necessitates a reconsideration of the human-nature interaction. It asserts that nature does not exist just to be exploited or consumed by people, but that humans are only one species among many, and that, as members of an ecosystem, any activities that negatively impact the living systems of which we are a part have a harmful effect on us as well, whether or not we maintain a biocentric worldview.

Derek Ryan's Animal Theory: A Critical Introduction is a critical exploration of how animals have been represented in literature, philosophy, and culture. The work delves into the theoretical frameworks of animality and examines how different intellectual traditions and historical contexts have shaped our understanding of animals. Ryan's approach typically involves analyzing the intersections of human and animal experiences, questioning how animals are depicted and the implications of these representations for our understanding of both human and animal lives. His analysis often aims to challenge anthropocentric views and explore the ethical and philosophical dimensions of human-animal relations. The history of western philosophy presents many examples of animals caged in anthropocentric, also known as human-centered modes of thought that have had a dominant influence on thinking about the capacities of animals, how they should be treated, and how they are commonly judged to be lower in status than humans. So, in order to understand the philosophical inheritance passed on to the various thinkers, it is important to look back at the significant development in theorizing animals and animality. Ryan in his seminal work offers perspectives on human-animal studies from a variety of thinkers, including Aristotle, René Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, and Derrida. In his Politics, Aristotle presents the significant statement that ‘man’ is separated from other animals because he ‘is by nature a political animal’ (10). To be sure, some animals may form their own kind of stories, but man is “in a higher degree than bees or other gregarious animals…man alone of the animals is furnished with the faculty of language.” (11) Further, language, reason and ethical judgement serve to elevate man above the experience of pleasure and pain. Aristotle therefore, sees a natural hierarchical relation between man and animal where intelligence is more important than bodily capacities. This view of Aristotle is highly challenged by Native Americans as they do not believe in any moral and natural hierarchy between humans and animals, rather they share a bond of mutual trust which eventually forms their community’s identity. Native American ideologies encompass a holistic viewpoint in which an individual's well-being is correlated with the well-being of their community and the environment. This interconnectedness is reflected in practices and teachings that emphasize living in harmony with nature. It is evident in the novel Power which clearly shows a contrasting worldview of Europeans and Taiga tribes. Taiga tribe considers themselves a part of non-human environment which provides them their source of livelihood. So, as a part of their shared responsibility they also protect their non-human dwellers with equal respect and care. But their treatment of non-human dwellers with equal respect and responsibility often posed as a threat from the anthropological attitude of European settlers.

René Descartes’ in his Discourse on the Method, discussed the concept of animality within the context of his broader philosophical views, particularly concerning the nature of mind and body. Descartes’ treatment of animals reflects his dualistic philosophy, which posits a fundamental distinction between the mind (res cogitans) and the body (res extensa). Descartes is known for his mechanistic view of the natural world. He considers animals to be complex machines or automata, driven by physical processes rather than conscious thought. According to Descartes, animals lack rational minds and are therefore not capable of experiencing emotions or possessing consciousness in the same way humans do. In his philosophical framework, Descartes argues that only humans possess a rational soul, which is responsible for conscious thought, self-awareness, and reasoning. Animals, by contrast, do not have this rational soul and are instead purely physical entities. This distinction leads him to conclude that animals are essentially biological machines without inner experiences. Descartes' view implies that animals are not moral agents and do not have the same ethical status as humans. Since animals are seen as automata without true consciousness or feelings, Descartes believes that their suffering is not morally significant in the same way as human suffering:

The law against killing animals is based more on empty superstition and ‘unmanly compassion and sound reason. The rational principle of seeking our own advantage teaches us to establish a bond with men, but not with the lower animals, or with things whose nature is different from others…For they do not agree in nature with us, and their affects are different in nature from human affects. (1996:135)

Descartes anthropocentric attitude towards maintaining non-hierarchical relationship between human and animal is what supported by European settlers in the novel Power. European settlers are only keen on gaining demographic takeover of the Native land, they started killing their local animals and plants and replacing it by importing their own animals and different varieties of plants which destroy the immunity of their ecoregion. It is quite evident in Hogan’s narrative in Power where the Taiga people witness the brutal killings of deer. This act of killing is further justified by the European settlers as “it was the only thing to do and they tagged them so they could examine their hungry insides later.” (Hogan, 27) But reason behind this cruel act is the “building and farming and sugarcane that were killing the deer” in the name of progress. The Panther people fall victim of the devastating results brought upon them in the name of modernity, progress and development.

As opposed to Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz have divergent perspectives on animal theory, rooted in their wider philosophical systems. Spinoza viewed animals as sentient beings with their own form of consciousness. In his work Ethics, he argued that animals, like humans, are modes of the same substance (God or Nature) and thus contribute the divine attributes. Animals have their own perceptions and desires, and they experience the world in ways that are akin to human experiences, although their cognitive capacities are different. Spinoza’s ethical framework implies a certain level of respect and compassion towards animals. Since animals are part of the same natural order and have their own form of consciousness, it is morally appropriate to treat them with kindness. He did not explicitly develop a detailed ethical theory on animal rights, but his views suggest a consideration of animals’ well-being within his broader moral philosophy. Leibniz, through his concept of monads, viewed animals as having their own inner life and perceptions. In his Monadology, he proposed that everything, including animals, is composed of monads, which are simple substances with their own perceptions and appetites. Animals, according to Leibniz, have minds, but their mental life is less complex compared to humans. In short, Spinoza and Leibniz both acknowledged that animals have mental and perceptual experiences, but their views diverge in the implications for ethics and the nature of animal minds. Spinoza’s approach leans towards a more empathetic consideration of animals as part of the same divine substance, while Leibniz, with his hierarchical framework, saw animals as lower in the great chain but still possessing some form of inner life.

Gary Snyders in his essay ‘The Rediscovery of Turtle Island’ provides critique of anthropocentric attitude of the west by showcasing Euro-Americans with their presumptions of human domination, priority, superiority, and uniqueness over other species. Further, he talks about the value of conviviality and co-existence of species. According to him, humanism which only focuses on the development of human virtue to its fullest and in this way, it has overlooked the significant contributions that the other living beings have made. The other living beings are meant for serving human beings’ needs and purposes. Snyder talks about the unrecognized relationship between human beings and nonhuman beings from time immemorial. Further, very few authors have discovered the human-animal relationships which narrate about the reciprocation between them. Reciprocation and response are something that nonhuman animals are completely denied off until the 1980s. The main reason behind this is that their presence was either silent as pet or domestic or metaphorical and allegorical, just like the moral story and fable. Writings about reciprocal relationship between human and nonhuman have been noticed first in the literature produced in Canada, South Africa and New Zealand. The non-human animals play a significant role in reshaping the lives of human beings from their desolated state to the reinvigorated one. They have nurtured the theme of animality or animal nature within human beings seriously.

Jacques Derrida’s essay “The Animal That Therefore I Am” is a significant contribution to contemporary philosophical discussions on animality, animal subjectivity and animal gaze. First published in 1997 and translated into English in 2008, the essay reflects Derrida’s deep engagement with issues related to human-animal relations and the nature of subjectivity. Derrida critiques the anthropocentric perspective that places humans at the centre of moral and philosophical consideration. He challenges the traditional view that animals are mere objects or machines, emphasizing that such a view is rooted in human exceptionalism and a failure to recognize the complexity of animal subjectivity. Derrida explores the concept of animal subjectivity, questioning whether animals have a form of self-awareness or consciousness. He argues that animals do exhibit forms of subjectivity, even though it might be different from human experiences. This challenges the traditional view that only humans possess true subjectivity and rationality. The title of the essay plays on the philosophical phrase “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am) by René Descartes. Derrida reflects on the implications of the “I am” in relation to animals, suggesting that this declaration of self might not be exclusive to humans but can also apply to animals in a different form. One of the poignant moments in the essay is Derrida’s reflection on his own experience with his cat, which he describes as a moment of being seen “naked” in a way that reveals the vulnerability and complexity of both human and animal experiences. This encounter becomes a metaphor for the ways in which animals challenge and disrupt human-centred perspectives. Derrida’s essay has had a profound impact on the fields of animal studies and it has been praised for its innovative approach to understanding animal subjectivity and its critique of traditional anthropocentric views. The human supremacy which Derrida critiques in his essay is what constitutes the narratives of the selected text Power. Taiga tribe also known as Panther clan in the novel portrayed as a marginalized tribe which has 30 people remaining in their number which is about the same number of Floridian panthers left in the 1990s. Due to its endangered status, the cat is protected from hunting by the state and federal law. It is also believed to be a sacred ancestor of the Taiga tribe. Although the Panther is protected by the European laws, their regard for the animal is very negligible in contrast to the Taiga tribe’s consideration of the same. The condition of the Taiga tribe is equally deplorable like the panthers as both are on the verge of extinction. The anthropocentric attitude of the European which perceives human beings at the centre of the universe also neglects the position of tribes’ people and devalue them just like the animal.

Further, Ziarkowska Joanna in her essay mentions the views of famous scholars Gregory Cajete and Santa Clara’s perceptions on animal nature which is unique and fundamentally distinct from Western ontologies and epistemologies in their groundbreaking work on Indigenous paradigms of science. People, animals, and inanimate objects symbolize the relational and sustainable nature of the Indigenous universe; animals are people's kin and are frequently incorporated into family structures; they are integrated in spiritual beliefs, and the relationship between human and non-human animals is non-hierarchical and expands on many levels of interactions: “In all Native traditions, the sacred directions are a conceptual, mythic, and spiritual structure for reflecting upon the symbolic meaning of animals in the cosmology of Native cultures” (150); animals are food and enter a reciprocal ritual of hunting and gratefulness, which ensures the survival of Native communities and the enduring respect people pay non-human animals; finally, animals feature as agents in Indigenous creation stories and together with humans bring about change, peace, and establish new orders (150-175). This attitude is very much prevalent in the narrative of Power which shows the Native way of life that is strongly bound to place and non-human surrounding, whereas Europeans are more interested in converting the natural world into material objects. The Taiga tribe, who have their origins in the Kili Swamp, have a culture that has been influenced by the ecological conscience of their community. Taiga tribes confront of colonial settlement in the Kili Swamp which outnumbered the Native population demographically and ecologically and demolish the physical environment in the region. Hogan, through her narrative showcases the taiga community and their ecological bond with the land in contrast with their European counterparts. As discussed earlier, the land describes in the novel is as endangered as the small tribe is: where there once was swamp, lake, and forest, there are now concrete roads, strip malls, and resorts. The land is being mowed under by development just as the remaining Native peoples are being mowed under by encroaching white culture.

Rooted in the biocentric perspective, Power represents the Taiga tribe’s way of life, which involves a deeper engagement with their non-human entities. As opposed to the anthropocentric worldview, Taiga tribes mutual bonding with their non-human creatures signifies their identification as a biocentric community. In the Native American Taiga language, the Florida panther is called Sisa. The 16-year-old narrator, Omishto, also known as "the Watcher," refers to the panther as a revered and enigmatic animal. She had never seen it for a very long time. But she's heard its cry, and it's so powerful that she thinks it could "bring down the world" (15). She also knows that her friend, Ama Eaton, has hunted and killed the cat, Sisa. Omishto calls Ama by the nickname “aunt who loves the panther” (16) because although Ama has tracked down Sisa and killed it, she worships this animal and believes that it is “our the Sisa’s one ally in this life” (16). She tells Omishto that when she was “born, an animal was born alongside of her to give her strength” throughout her life (16). The animal which has been killed by Ama Eaton is considered as their ancestor. But Ama Eaton cannot able to let the animal suffer excessively. All that suffering is caused by the anthropocentric mindset of European settlers who uses them as an element of materialistic gain. On the other hand, Taiga tribes are more concerned with the health and well-being of non-human entities which is evident in Ama Eaton’s violent yet justified act of killing the panther. In the novel, Ema tells Omishto that the Sisa is now endangered and sick because of humans’ damage to its environment. In the evenings, searching for the Sisa, she “looks out in the darkness” (16). When she sees the Sisa, she and the other animal “exchange glances,” and “see into each other’s eyes” (16)

Ama's decision of killing the sick animal contradicts the Taiga tribe's biocentric viewpoint, yet fundamentally, Ama wants to kill the sick animal in order to maintain the Taiga tribe's power and vitality. As the Taiga tribe is known by that panther which stands for their community’s strength and identity, ultimately the sick panther will eventually signify the weakness of their tribe which Ama Eaton never wanted. Therefore, she releases the sick panther through her act of killing it. At first Omishto is puzzled by Ama’s decision but later on she has understood the hidden meaning behind it. Ama tells her that she cannot endure such a beautiful and powerful animal to “die by poison or be hit by a car like the others” (62). She also knows that the Sisa is suffering greatly. She tells Omishto that they have to kill the Sisa because “Letting it die the way it is dying is worse” (62). Hogan here raises the question of an animal killing that is “both grace and doom, right and wrong” (62) and she does not provide an answer except to strongly suggest that the humans who are ultimately responsible for the death of the Sisa are not Ama or her people.

Hogan depicts Ama's killing of the panther as an effort to remember and honour her people's revered hunt of the Sisa, the panther, despite her knowledge that the white colonists have ruined this tradition. They appear to have mutual trust in one another, and the panther seems to know that they are doing what they are told. The panther travels slowly, as if to make sure Ama and Omishto follow it rather than run away or hide. When it dives into the water and swims across to the other side, Ama also “dips and submerges her whole body like she’s being baptized, holding the rifle out of the water” (63). For the narrator, the panther seems to be “calling us forward” (64). He “looks back at us from time to time” and “is calm” (64). At times, it vanishes, but “its eye gives off a light,” which is “its only outcry,” “its testimony, its voice, its words” (64)

Hogan contrasts sacrifice and judgment in the chapter titled "Judgment." She offers a critique of Christianity for emphasizing judgment too much. She narrates, “theirs is a spare God, short on love, thin on compassion, strong on judgment” (102). Ama and Omishto are held completely accountable for the killing of the protected species of Florida panther. At school, where the Florida panther is the school mascot, Omishto’s white classmates call her a “Cat Killer” and scrawl “Killer” on her locker (105). As Hogan writes about many non-Native Americans, “The idea of the panther is loved while the animal itself is hated, unwanted” (105). She draws attention to the irony that while many people adore the notion of the Florida panther, they really do not care about the real animal since they poison its hunting areas, damage its natural habitats, and build roads through its forests.

As mentioned above, the Taiga tribe refers to the panther as Sisa, and in their belief system, Sisa is the originator of their world, their sister and mother, and a sacred being. For the Taiga people, the panther is an integral part of their culture and faith. The panther is under attack, just like the Taiga, with white people stealing its habitat and endangering its entire way of life. Although Omishto and Ama are aware that killing a panther is forbidden and that the animal has been designated as an endangered species, they are also aware that, like the Taiga, white people do not truly want panthers to live in their daily lives. So, in a way, Sisa signifies a symbolic aspect which represents the Taiga tribes cultural and spiritual identification with their non-human surroundings. Hogan’s work often delves into themes related to human-non-human entities, indigenous cultures, and the interplay between humans and the environment. Sisa, as a Florida panther, represents both the power and vulnerability of nature. In the novel, Sisa’s presence underscore themes of ecological balance and the impact of human actions on wildlife which again challenges the anthropocentric attitude of European settlers. It is present many indigenous cultures who considers that animals like the panther are not only important ecological players but also carry spiritual significance. Sisa’s role in the novel can be seen as a bridge between the natural world and human spirituality, reflecting how indigenous knowledge and traditions view animals as integral to the ecosystem and spiritual realm. Sisa also functions as a metaphor for the struggles faced by indigenous peoples and marginalized communities. The panther’s endangered status mirrors the threats to cultural and environmental preservation, symbolizing the broader fight for survival and respect for natural and cultural heritage. Sisa’s interactions with other characters in the novel emphasize the interconnectedness of all living beings. The panther’s presence serves as a reminder of the impact human actions have on wildlife and the environment, reinforcing the novel’s environmental and social messages.

Lydia R. Cooper offers a view of famous radical environmentalist Dave Foreman in her essay “Women Chasing Her God”: Ritual, Renewal, and Violence in Linda Hogan’s “Power”, where he holds that everything is interconnected and interdependent and that humans are just one of millions of species that have been moulded over the course of three and a half billion years by the process of evolution. This perspective challenges the anthropocentric view that places human interests above those of other species. His view advocates for a deep respect for the natural world and recognizes the interdependence of all life forms. By acknowledging the interconnectedness of all species and their right to coexist, this philosophy seeks to foster a more balanced and respectful relationship between humans and the environment. Throughout her book, Hogan makes it very evident that the idea of anthropocentrism itself, rather than isolated violent acts, is nature's deadliest adversary. Not because the animal is killed, but rather because Ama's killing of the panther is heinous and wicked. Had she followed the ancient Taiga customs surrounding killing, the chiefs would have accepted her actions as legitimate. Rather, Omishto contends that the killing of the panther was against nature since the humans for whom the animal died did not reciprocate the sacrifice made by the animal. Omishto claims “In the old days it was said that the shining fish would come up from the water just to partake of our faces as we washed…the whole earth loved the human people. Now it all pulls away from us and hides”. She further says “In the old days when we were beautiful and agile, we asked the animals to lay down their lives for us and in turn we offered them our kinship, our respect, our words in the next world over from here, our kind treatment. In the old days we were humans” (129).

So, this biocentric consciousness is deeply reflected in the taiga tribe’s locating themselves in a web of relationships with the non-human community. As discussed before, Kili Swamp serves as a place “that is the part of the territory of the panther’. (Hogan 1998:153) and the Taiga people believe that the panther is their “older sister” (111). The Taiga people named the panther Sisa, and they believe that they are descended from the panther, who they consider to be "one of the first people” (111) in Kili Swamp. The Taiga regards the wind, Oni, as their god, and they believe that the panther is the one who gave them the word Oni. Therefore, it is possible to understand the Taiga people's cultural and spiritual connection to the panther as a means of becoming native to Kili Swamp. Their reverence towards the panther as their ancestor is mentioned in the following passage:

Song and prayer and wind are all the same word, Oni. Oni was the word the panther spoke to help the creator breathe us to life in the oldest time when everything was only air and water. It was the word given to humans by the panther, Sisa, who came to this world first. Panther, here before us, was one of the beings who helped this creation breathe to life. (Hogan, 182)

The Taiga tribes who live in Kili Swamp represent their relationship to the non-human elements of their environment, which ultimately shapes the identity of their community. Their identification as a panther clan also indicates their cultural growth as a natural community. The panther shows a sustainable way of dwelling which the Taiga people integrate in their life for becoming a part of a particular region. So, refereeing them as ‘panther clan’ suggests the Taiga people’s biocentric outlook in cultural expression and identity formation.

Therefore, the narrative of the selected text in particular offers a broader perspective, viewing the relationship between humans and animals as being in opposition to the anthropocentric worldview. Panther clans’ connection with their non-human environment itself validates the biocentric perspective, which in a way forms their community’s identity and sustenance. As demonstrated in the analysis, Power shows the detrimental consequences of European anthropocentrism through their treatment of the non-human world. On the other hand, the Taiga tribes’ reverence for their natural world seems to challenge the anthropocentric attitude of European colonizers. So, in the novel, it is evident that the Taiga people have succeeded in holding a sustained relationship towards the natural world, for they consider themselves part of it rather than its master. Hence, the anthropocentric assumption of man’s unique position is refused by the majority of Native Americans, whose treatment of the natural world can be considered an affirmation of biocentrism. Linda Hogan’s Power is successful to a certain extent in conveying the biocentric worldview of the Taiga tribe, which encompasses a caring and ethical regard for the non-human world.

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Dhanasree Sarmah

PhD Research Scholar, Department of English

Dibrugarh University, Assam

E-mail: dhanasree.sarma.sarma@gmail.com

DOI:https://doi.org/10.69627/NOL2024VOL1ISS2-01

DOI: https://doi.org/10.69627/NOL2024VOL1ISS2-01